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Further into Imperfecta Living Curiosities: Agency and Exploitation of the Teratological Body Curiosity draws us to the monstrous. But seeing is believing: whether in a book, a museum, or in a show, for centuries people have flocked to see “monsters” for themselves. In the 19th century, many people born with non-normative bodies performed as “freaks” in circus sideshows. Circuses became a sensation and they served as a forerunner to the modern entertainment industry. This exhibit explores the lives of the performers and showmen whose livelihoods depended on the public’s curiosity about seeing wondrous bodies for themselves. Seeing is Believing: Visualizing the Teratological Body When it comes to the wondrous, seeing is believing. From this page, you can explore some of the ways that “monsters” have been depicted over the centuries. Woodcuts in early modern texts, preservation in medical museums, and photography all have been used to display people. These technologies allowed one person’s image to travel across the world and allowed their subjects to “survive” beyond death. What Does It Mean to be "Other?" What does it mean to be a “monster?” What does it mean to be “normal?” These are not objective categories. They have changed meaning throughout history as people have become exposed to a wider diversity of nature, people, and ideas. From this path, you can explore some types of “Otherness” that have, throughout history, challenged apparently objective categories and shaped the direction of science.

The Skepticism of Science

Advances in 19th Century medical science offered further skepticism to the concept of maternal impression. August Förster (1822-1865), a German anatomist who wrote on maternal impression, rejected the many stories found in medical literature. Förster's many reasons for this rejection came from his scientific understanding. One argument was that most malformations occur during the first week or month of pregnancy. This is before the mother usually has any idea that they are carrying a fetus.

Others, such as the French physician Ernest Martin (1876-1934), sought a medical explanation for maternal impression. In his 1880 book, Histoire des monstres: depuis l'antiquité jusqu'à nos jours, Martin claims that the imagination plays a mechanical role in the creation of monsters. This mechanical role occurs when the mother’s mental state is conveyed through the nervous system. This caused the uterus to contract, bringing the fetus under pressure and causing malformations.

Through the efforts of those such as Turner and Martin, beliefs in maternal impression continued through the nineteenth century. A manuscript by Dr. William Turner held at the Historical Medical Library of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia is an example. Dated 1876, it is an address to the Philadelphia County Medical Society, which can read in its entirety here. Turner, while more cautious than many of his earlier predecessors, asserted that maternal impression is a real phenomenon. Like Martin, he used medical explanations for the phenomenon.

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Contents of this path:
1. Mary Toft, the Woman Who Gave Birth to Rabbits In September 1726, news spread around England about a young servant woman who had given birth to several rabbits. After having miscarried a month earlier, Mary Toft still appeared pregnant, and after a labor attended by her neighbor, Toft gave birth to what “looked like a liverless cat.” Toft’s family called the physician from a nearby town who, upon visiting Toft, was presented with many animal parts.
4. Modern Science and the Limits of Maternal Impression Many of the ideas and scenarios presented here as examples of maternal impression seem fantastic or even absurd to the modern reader. Indeed, the continuing scientific revolutions of the 20th century, such as those in the field of genetics, did much to dispel the hold of maternal impression on western medicine. However, articles dating to the 1990’s continue to state that, in some cases, maternal impression is a real and literal exchange between a mother and the fetus she carries.

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Opening to Dr. William Taylor's address on maternal impression